PARAPRESBEIA.

PARASITI.

from the relaxation of that precautionary law of | ed rendered their accounts at the end of the officia. Solon, which required every measure to be approved year; but ambassadors, who were extraordinary by the 1 ouobéral before it could pass into law. (Vid. functionaries, had no time limited for this purpose. NOMOTHETES, and Schömann.') It is obvious that, Eschines delayed giving an account of his embassy while the people in assembly had the power of ma- to Philip for three years. We can hardly suppose, king decrees which could remain in force for a year, however (as Thirlwall states), that the time of renif they wished to evade the law of Solon, all they dering the account was optional with the ambassahad to do was to renew their decree from year to dor himself, since, not to mention the power of the year, and thus, in practice, the pioua became hoyloraí, it was open to any man to move for a νόμος. special decree of the people, that the party should be called to account immediately. The yрaph apaπрeobɛias was a runтòs úyúv; and as it might comprise charges of the most serious kind, such as treachery and treason against the state, the defend. ant might have to apprehend the heaviest punishment. Eschines reminds the dicasts of the great peril to which he is exposed, and makes a merit of submitting to his trial without fear. Besides the γραφή, an εισαγγελία might be brought against an ambassador, upon which the accused would be committed to prison, or compelled to give bail for his appearance. This course was taken by Hyperides against Philocrates, who avoided his trial by voluntary exile.

If the year had elapsed, the propounder of the law could not be punished, though the law itself might be repealed in the ordinary way by the institution of proceedings before the vouobéral, before whom it was defended by the five oúvdikot. The speech against Leptines was made in a proceeding against the law itself, and not against the mover. As the author of the second argument says, Tapeλθόντος τοῦ χρόνου, ἐν ᾧ ὑπεύθυνος ἦν κρίσει καὶ τιμωρία γράφων τις νόμον, ἐφαίνετο Λεπτίνης ἀκίνδυνος• ὅθεν πρὸς αὐτὸν, ἀλλ' οὐ κατ' αὐτοῦ ὁ λόγος. PARA'NYMPHOS (πapúvvμpos). (Vid. MARRIAGE, GREEK, p. 620.)

PARAPETASMA (Tараnéтаoμа). (Vid. VELUM.) PARAPHERNA. (Vid. Dos, ROMAN.) PARAPRESBEI'A (лараπрεobcía) signifies any corrupt conduct, misfeasance, or neglect of duty on the part of an ambassador, for which he was liable to be called to account and prosecuted on his return nome. Ambassadors were usually elected by the people in assembly; they either had instructions given to them or not; in the latter case they were called avтoкрáтopes, envoys with full powers, or plenipotentiary. To act contrary to their instructions (apù rò noιoμа прεobεvεiv) was a high misdemeanour. On their return home they were required immediately to make a report of their proceedings (anayyéhew Thν peobeíav), first to the Senate of Five Hundred, and afterward to the people in assembly. This done, they were functi officio; but still, like all other persons who had held an office of trust, they were liable to render an account (evoúvas) of the manner in which they had discharged their duty." The persons to whom such account was to be rendered were the hoyoral, and the officers associated with them, called evovvol. A pecuniary account was only rendered in cases where money had passed through the hands of the party; in other cases, after stating that he had neither spent nor received any of the public money, the accounting party was discharged, unless there was reason for thinking that he deserved to be proceeded against for misconduct. The 2oyioraí themselves had power to summon the party at once to appear as a criminal, and undergo the úvárpiois in their office (2oylornpiov), upon which they would direct the ovvyopot to prosecute; and this probably was the ordinary course in case of any pecuniary malversation. Accusations, however, of a more general nature were commonly preferred by individuals, giving information to the 2oytoraí, who, for the purpose of giving any citizen an opportunity of so doing, caused their knpus to make proclamation in public assembly, that such a person was about to render his account, and to ask if any one intended to accuse him. If an accuser appeared, his charge would be reduced to the form of a ypapń, and the prosecution would be conducted in the usual way, the 2oyioraí being the superintending magistrates. Magistrates who were annually elect

ΠΑΡΑΠΡΕΣΒΕΙΑΣ ΓΡΑΦΗ. (Vid. PARAPRES

BEIA.)

PARASANG ( Tapaoáyyns), a Persian measure of length, frequently mentioned by the Greek writers. It is still used by the Persians, who call it

(ferseng), which has been changed in Ar

abic into (farsakh).

to 30 Greek stadia. Suidas and Hesychius' assign According to Herodotus, the parasang was equal it the same length; and Xenophon must also have calculated it at the same, as he says that 16,050 stadia are equal to 535 parasangs (16,050-535-30). Agathias, however, who quotes the testimony of Herodotus and Xenophon to the parasang being 30 stadia, says that in his time the Iberi and Persians made it only 21 stadia. Strabo1o also states that others at 30 stadia; and Pliny11 informs us that the some writers reckoned it at 60, others at 40, and Persians themselves assigned different lengths to it. Modern English travellers estimate it variously at from 3 to 4 English miles, which nearly agrees with the calculation of Herodotus.

The etymology of parasang is doubtful. Rödiger1 supposes the latter part of the word to be the same as the Persian (seng), "a stone," and the former part to be connected with the Sanscrit पार (pára), "end," and thinks that it may have derived its name from the stones placed at the end of certain distances on the public roads of Persia.

PARASE'MON (Taρúonμov). (Vid. INSIGNE.) PARASITI (Tapúoiroi) properly denotes persons who dine with others. In the early history of Greece the word had a very different meaning from that in which it was used in later times. Tò de Toù лapacírov ὄνομα πάλαι μὲν ἦν σεμνὸν καὶ ἱερόν, says Athen us:13 and he proves from various decrees (noiopara) and other authorities that anciently the name púoiros was given to distinguished persons who were appointed as assistants to certain priests and to the highest magistrates. As regards the priestly and civil parasites, the accounts of their office are so obscure that we are scarcely able to form any definite notion of it. An ancient law1 ordained

1. (p. 229.)-2. (Hermann, Pol. Ant., 132.)-3. (Demosth., Mid., 515.-De Fals. Leg., 342.)-4. (Thucyd., v., 45. vi., p. 26.)-2. (Meier, Att. Proc., 193.)-3. (De Fals. Leg., 28, 1. (Demosth., De Fals. Leg., 374.-Thirlwall, Gr. Hist., vol. Esch., c. Ctes., 62, ed. Steph.)-5. (Demosth., De Fals. Leg., 52.)-4. (Eschin., c. Ctes., 65, ed. Steph.)-5. (ii., 6, v., 53 346.) 6. (sch., De Fals. Leg., 30, ed. Steph.-Aristoph., vi., 42.)-6. (s. v.)-7. (s. v.)-8. (Anab., i., 2, 6.)--9. (1, Ach., 61.-Schömann, Ant. jur. pub. Gr., p. 234.)-7. (De- 21.)-10. (xi., p. 518.)-11. (H. N., vi., 301-12. (in Ersch ond mosth., De Fals. Leg., 367, 406.)-8. (Pollux, Onom., viii, 40, Gruber's Encyclopädie, s. v. Paras.) 13 (vi. p. 234)-19 45.-Schmann, Ib., p. 240.-Meier, Att. Proc., 214-224.)

7༣༡

(Athen., 1. c.)

PAREDRI.

different from I ardalis, and by Oppian is said to be small and of little courage. The Romans, nevertheless, sometimes employed it to translate the word úvonp, and the Greeks of the lower empire, induced by the resemblance of the names, have probably attributed to the Panther some of the characters which they found among the Romans on the Panthera. Bochart, without knowing these animals himself, has collected and compared with much sagacity everything that the ancients and the Orientalists have said about them. He endeavours to clear up these apparent contradictions by a passage in which Oppian characterizes two species of Pardalis, the great, with a shorter tail than the less. It is to this smaller species that Bochart would apply the word лúvone. But there are found in the country known to the ancients two animals with spotted skins the common Panther of naturalists, and another animal, which, after Daubenton, is named the Guepard (or Hunting Leopard). The Arabian authors have there also known and distinguished two of these animals; the first under the name of Nemer, the other under that of Fehd; and although Bochart considers the Fehd to be the Lynx, Cuvier rather inclines to think it the Hunting Leopard. The Guepard, then, would be the Panther, and there is nothing stated by the Greeks repugnant to this idea."1

*II. One of the large fishes mentioned by Elian and Oppian, and by Suidas under Kirоç. Many conjectures have been made respecting it, the most probable of which, according to Adams, is, that it was the Squalus tigrinus, a species of Shark.2

PARIES.

κes. Demosthenes accuses Stephanus of buying his place of the Apxwv Baotλeus. It was usual to choose relatives and friends to be assessors; but they might at any time be dismissed, at least for good cause.' The thesmothetæ, though they had no regular Túpedpot, used to have counsellors (ou bovλoi), who answered the same purpose. The office of Túрedрos was called rapt opía, and to exer cise it rapedpεvεLv.

From the Túpedpot of the archons we must distinguish those who assisted the ev0vvo in examining and auditing magistrates' accounts. The εύθυνοι were a board of ten, and each of them chose two assessors. (Vid. EUTHYNE.)

*PAREI'AS (Tapeías), a species of Serpent, sa cred to Esculapius. Gesner concludes that it is the serpent called Baron in certain parts of Italy. According to the author of the Etymologicon Mag. num, it is innoxious."

PAREIS GRAPHE (παρεισγραφή) signifies a fraudulent enrolment in the register of citizens. For this. an indictment lay at Athens, called Sevias ypaon; and, besides, the dnuóraι might, by their dianpiois, eject any person who was illegally enrolled among them. From their decision there might be an appeal to a court of dicasts; of which the speech of Demosthenes against Eubulides furnishes an example. If the dicasts confirmed the decision of the Snuóra, the appellant party was sold for a slave. Spurious citizens are sometimes called παρέγγραπτοι, παρεγγεγραμμένοι. The expression Tapeιoypaons ypaon is not Attic." ΠΑΡΕΙΣΓΡΑΦΗΣ ΓΡΑΦΗ. (Vid. PABEISGRA

PHE.)

*PARD'ALOS (Túpdaλoç), a bird noticed by Aristotle. "Aldrovandi and Buffon agree in holding it PARENTA'LIA. (Vid. FUNUS, p. 462.) to be the Tringa squatarola, L., or the Gray Plover; PA'RIES (τειχίον, whence the epithet τειχιόεσσα, but Dr. Trail prefers the Charadrius pluvialis, or "full of houses," applied to cities; Toixos,10 whence Golden Plover. Schneider mentions that Biller-TOXOPURTηS and TOXWpUxos, "a house-breaker, a beck had advanced the opinion that it is the common Starling, or Sturnus vulgaris. This opinion, however, is entitled to no credit."3

*PARDION (updtov). Schneider follows Palas in referring this to the Camelopard, or Giraffa Camelopardalis.*

thief," and Toxwpvxía, "burglary"), the wall of a house, in contradistinction from murus, the wall of a city. Among the numerous methods employed by the ancients in constructing walls, we find mention of the following:

I. The paries cratitius, i. e., the wattled or the lath-and-plaster wall, made of canes or hurdles (vid. CRATES) covered with clay." These were used in the original city of Rome to form entire houses; 12 afterward they were coated with mortal instead of clay, and introduced like our lath-andplaster walls in the interior of houses.

II. Vitruvius13 mentions as the next step the practice, common in his time among the Gauls, and continued to our own in Devonshire, of drying square lumps of clay and building them into walls, which were strengthened by means of horizontal bond-timbers (jugamenta) laid at intervals, and which were then covered with thatch.

PAREDRI (Túpεdpot). Each of the three superior archons was at liberty to have two assessors (rúpedpot), chosen by himself, to assist him, by advice and otherwise, in the performance of his various duties. The assessor, like the magistrate imself, had to undergo a dokuacía in the Senate of Five Hundred and before a judicial tribunal before he could be permitted to enter upon his labours. He was also to render an account (evoúvn) at the end of the year. The office is called an ipx? by Demosthenes. The duties of the archon, magisterial and judicial, were so numerous, that one of the principal objects of having assessors must have been to enable them to get through their business. We and the rúpedpos assisting the archon at the ληξις δίκης. He had authority to keep order at public festivals and theatres, and to impose a fine on the disorderly. As the archons were chosen by lot (Kanporo), and might be persons of inferior capacity, and not very well fitted for their station, it might often be useful, or even necessary, for them to procure the assistance of clever men of business. And perhaps it was intended that the πúpedpot should not only assist, but in some measure check and control the power of their principals. They mosth., c. Theoc., 1330.- Schömann, Ant. jur. pub. Gr., p. 245. are spoken of as being ßoŋboì, cúμbovλoi kai púha-Meier, Att. Proc., p. 57-59.)-4. (Schömann, 1b., 240.- Meier,

1. (Aristot., H. A. i., 1.-Oppian, Cyneg., iii., 63.-Adams, Append., s. v.-Griffith's Cuvier, vol. 11, 1, 4590) 2 (Elian, APP., 14.-Oppian, Hal., i., 368.)-3. (Aristot., II. A., ix., Schneider ad Aristot., 1. c.-Adams, Append., s. v.)-4. Adams, Append., 8. v.)-5. (c. Near, (Aristot., H. A., ii., 2.-. 1369.). (Demosth., c. Theoc., 1332.)-7. (Demosth., c. Mid., 572.) 8. (Demosthi, . Neer., 1372.)

III. The paries formaceus, i. c., the pisé wall, made of rammed earth. (Vid. FORMA.)

IV. In districts abounding with wood, loghouses were common, constructed, like those of the Siberians and of the modern Americans in the back settlements, of the trunks of trees, which were more or less squared, were then laid upon one another in a horizontal position, and had their interstices filled with chips (schidiis), moss, and clay. After this

1. (c. Neter., 1369.)-2. (Demosth., c. Near., 1373.)-3. (De

Ib., 102.)-5. (El., N. A., iii., 12.-Lucan, Pharsal., ix., 721.

Adams, Append., s. v.)-6. (Esch., De Fals. Leg., 38, 51, ed. Steph.) 7. (Schumann, Ant. jur. pub. Gr., 206.-Meier, All Proc., 347-349.)-8. (IIom., Od., xvi., 165, 343.) 9. (II., ii. 559-646.)-10. (Il., ix., 2190; xvi., 212.-Od., ii., 342; vii., 56, 95; xx., 302, 354.)-11 (Plin., H. N., xxxv., 14, s. 48.-Festas, s. v. Solea.)-12. (Ovid, Fast., iii., 183; vi., 261.-Vitruv, n.

1.)-13: (1. c)

PARIES.

manner the Colchians erected houses several stories high.1

V. The paries lateritius, i. e., the brick wall. (Vid. LATER.) Among the Romans, the ordinary thickness of an outside wall was 18 inches (sesquipes), being the length of the common or Lydian brick; but, if the building was more than one story high, the walls at the bottom were either two or three bricks thick (diplinthii aut triplinthii), according to circumstances. The Egyptians sometimes exhibited a checkered pattern, and perhaps other devices, upon the walls of their houses by the alternation of white and black bricks. The Romans, probably in imitation of the Etrurians, often cased the highest part of a brick wall with a range of terra cottas (structura and lorica testacea3), eighteen inches high, with projecting cornices, and spouts for discharging the water from the roof. (Vid: ANTEFIXA.)

:

PARIES.

VII. The structura antiqua or incerta, 1. e., the wall of irregular masonry, built of stones, which were not squared or cut into any exact form. The necessary consequence of this method of construction was, that a great part of the wall consisted of mortar and rubble-work.'

VIII. The emplccton, i. e., the complicated wall, consisting, in fact, of three walls joined together. Each side presented regular masonry or brickwork; but the interior was filled with rubble (fartura). To bind together the two outside walls, and thus render the whole firm and durable, large stones or courses of brickwork (coagmenta) were placed at intervals, extending through the whole thickness of the wall, as was done also in the structura reticulata. Walls of this description are not uncommon, especially in buildings of considerable size.

;

IX. The parics e lapide quadrato, i. e., the ashlar VI. The reticulata structura, i. e., the reticulated, wall, consisting entirely of stones cut and squared or resembling network. This structure consists in by the chisel. (Vid. DoLABRA.) This was the most placing square or lozenge-shaped stones side by side perfect kind of wall, especially when built of mar upon their edges, the stones being of small dimen-ble. The construction of such walls was carried to sions, and cemented by mortar (materia a calce et the highest perfection by the architects of Greece; arena). In many cases the mortar has proved more the temples of Athens, Corinth, and many cities of durable than the stone, especially where volcanic Asia Minor still attesting in their ruins the extreme tufa is the material employed, as at Baie in the Bay skill bestowed upon the erection of walls. Considof Naples, and in the villa of Hadrian near Tivoli.erable excellence in this art must have been attainThis kind of building is very common in the ancient ed by the Greeks even as early as the age of Hoedifices of Italy. Vitruvius says that it was uni- mer, who derives one of his similes from the "niceversally adopted in his time. Walls thus construct-ly-fitted stones" of the wall of a house. But probed were considered more pleasing to the eye, but ably in this the Greeks only copied the Asiatics less secure than those in which the stones lay upon for Xenophon came to a deserted city in Mesopotheir flat surfaces. The front of the wall was the tamia, the brick walls of which were capped by a only part in which the structure was regular, or the parapet of "polished shell marble." Instead of stones cut into a certain form, the interior being using mortar, as in the last four kinds, the ancients rubble-work or concrete (fartura), i. e., fragments gave solidity to their ashlar walls by cutting the and chippings of stone (camenta, xáλ15) imbedded in stones so exactly as to leave no perceptible space mortar. Only part of the wall was reticulated to between their contiguous surfaces. A tenon and give it firmness and durability, the sides and base mortice often united a stone to that which was above were built of brick or of squared stones, and hori- it, and the stones which were placed side by side zontal courses of bricks were laid at intervals, ex- were fastened together with iron cramps (ansis fertending through the length and thickness of the reis) and lead. Hence the Coliseum at Rome, wall. These circumstances are well exemplified and the other grand remains of ancient architecture in the annexed woodcut, which is copied from the throughout Europe, have been regarded by the moddrawing of a wall at Pompeii, executed on the spot erns as iron and lead mines, and we see them mutiby Mr. Mocatta. lated by the pickaxe over all those points where cramps and tenons were known to be inserted. As a farther method of making the walls firm and compact, the Greeks placed at intervals bond-stones, which they called diaróvot, because they extended through the whole thickness of the wall. The walls of the Temple of Jupiter at Cyzicus, built of the marble (the Proconnesian) for which that locality has always been renowned, were ornamented with a gold thread placed over all the seams of the stones. Besides conferring the highest degree of beauty and solidity, another important recommendation of ashlar walls was, that they were the most secure against fire, an advantage to which St. Paul alludes when he contrasts the stones, valuable both for material and for workmanship (λίθους τιμίους), and the gold and silver which were exhibited in the walls of such a temple as that just mentioned, with the logs of wood, the thatch, the straw and cane, employed in building walls of the first four kinds. Vitruvius also strongly objects to the paries cratitius on account of its great combustibility.

JAN
T

1. (Vitruv., 1. c.-Compare Herod., iv., 108.-Vitruv., ii., 9.) -2. (Athen., v., p. 208, c.)-3. (Vitruv.. ii., 8.-Pallad., De Re Rusti.. 11.-4. (Plin.. H. N., xxx i., 22, s. 51.)-5. (ii., 8.)

Cicero, in a single passage of his Topica,' uses four epithets which were applied to walls. He opposes the paries solidus to the fornicatus, and the communis to the directus. The passage, at the same time, shows that the Romans inserted arches

1. (Vitruv., 1. c.)—2. (Il., xvi., 212.)-3. (Anab., iii., 4, ◊ 10.) 4. (Vitruv., 1. c.)-5. (Uerod., i., 186.-Thucyd., i., 93.)-6 (Plin., II. N., xxxvi., 15, s. 22.)-7. (1 Cor., iii., 10-15.)-8. (ii 8, ad fin.)-9. ( 4.)